Glaucoma is a condition in which pressure is placed on the eye, causing inadequate fluid drainage in the eye. If the condition becomes chronic or persists without treatment, it will eventually cause permanent damage to the optic nerve, resulting in blindness.

Glaucoma is common in certain dog breeds that are genetically predisposed, such as Samoyeds, Cocker Spaniels, Poodles, Chow Chows, and Siberian Huskies. Unfortunately, 40 percent of dogs affected by glaucoma will become blind in the affected eye within the first year, regardless of medical or surgical treatment.

Symptoms and Types
There are two main types of glaucoma: primary and secondary. Symptoms for sudden primary disease, due to the eye's inability to drain through the filtration angles of the eye, are as follows:

• High pressure within the eye
• Blinking of the eye
• The eyeball may recede back into the head
• Redness of the blood vessels in the whites of eyes
• Cloudy appearance at front of the eye
• Dilated pupil – or pupil does not respond to light
• Vision loss

Long-term, advanced disease:

• Enlargement of the eyeball (buphthalmos)
• Obvious loss of vision
• Advanced degeneration within the eye

Symptoms for secondary glaucoma, or glaucoma due to secondary eye infection(s), include:

• High pressure within the eye
• Redness of the blood vessels in the whites of eyes
• Cloudy appearance at front of the eye
• Inflammatory debris visible in the front of the eye
• Possible constriction of the pupil
• Possible sticking of the iris to either the cornea or the lens
• Possible that the edge of the iris circularly sticks to the lens

In addition, there may be:

• Headaches, with head pressing to relieve feelings of pressure in head
• Loss of appetite
• Change in attitude, less desire to play or interact

Causes
High pressure in the eye occurs when the normal outflow of fluid in the eye is impaired due to a primary eye disease such as the improper development of the eye's filtration angles, or secondary to other eye diseases such as primary lens luxation (slipping of the lens in the eye), inflammation of the tissues of the eye, eye tumor(s), or blood collection in the front of the eye from injury. In dogs, secondary glaucoma is more common than primary glaucoma.

Diagnosis
You will need to give a thorough history of your dog's health, onset of symptoms, as far as you have been able to tell, and possible incidents that might have preceded this condition, such as injuries to the eye (even those which you consider minor). During the physical examination, your veterinarian will test the pressure within your dog's  eyes using a tonometer on the surface of the eye. If the disease began suddenly, your veterinarian will refer your dog to a veterinary ophthalmologist for a detailed examination of both eyes, including evaluation of the filtration angles by gonioscopy -- measuring the anterior of the eye. Pressure within the eye can measure as high as 45 to 65 mmHg, making this a very painful condition.

Electroretinography will be also performed by the veterinary ophthalmologist to determine if the eye will remain blind despite treatment. In secondary diseases, X-rays and an ultrasound may show abnormalities within the eye.

Often both eyes are affected, but not always. In cases where only one eye is affected, steps will be taken to protect the unaffected eye from developing a diseased condition.

Treatment
Your veterinarian will prescribe multiple drugs to lower the pressure within your dog's eye and to get it into the normal range as quickly as possible in an attempt to salvage vision. Often, a dog will have a long-term condition that has gone unnoticed or that has been misdiagnosed before the obvious symptoms of glaucoma have become present. In such cases, the optical nerve has been damaged beyond reparation and surgery may be indicated.

There are different treatments depending on the exact nature of the glaucoma. The fluid may be drained and the fluid producing cells altered to stop fluid buildup within the eye. This process, called cyclocryotherapy, uses cold temperatures to kill the cells that produce intraocular fluid. If found early, this procedure may slow down or stop further progression. However, in most long term cases the eye will have to be removed. The empty eye socket may be closed up permanently, or the eye cavity can be filled with an orb, to keep the ocular space filled.

Most dogs will adjust over time to the loss of their eye, especially as they may have been losing their vision over a period pf time. Talk to your veterinarian about ways in which you can help your dog to transition, and how you can help to make its home and outdoor life easier without its sight. In such cases, you will need to attend your dog when it is outdoors, as it will be more vulnerable to other animals.

Living and ManagementIf the condition has been caught early enough and your veterinarian is able to manage the condition, you will need to revisit your veterinarian regularly to have the pressure within the eye assessed and to monitor for drug interactions and make changes as necessary. Your veterinary ophthalmologist will examine the unaffected (or "good") eye to determine its risk of also developing glaucoma. Because more than 50 percent of dogs with primary glaucoma will develop complications in their unaffected eye within 8 months, preventative therapy should be done quickly.

Systemic Hypertension in Dogs
More commonly referred to as high blood pressure, hypertension occurs when the dog's arterial blood pressure is continually higher than normal. When it is caused by another disease, it is called secondary hypertension; primary hypertension, meanwhile, refers to when it actually is the disease. Hypertension may affect many of the dog's body systems, including heart, kidneys, eyes, and the nervous system.


Symptoms and Types
The following are just some of the more common symptoms displayed by dogs with high blood pressure:

• Seizures
• Circling
• Disorientation
• Blindness
• Dilated pupils
• Retinal detachment
• Hemorrhage of the eye
• Blood in the urine
• Protein in the urine
• Bleeding from the nose
• Swollen or shrunken kidneys
• Heart murmurs
• Weakness, either on one side of the body or in the legs
• Involuntary oscillation (rolling) of the eyeballs
• Palpable thyroid gland (when hyperthyroid)

Causes
The cause of primary hypertension in dogs is not known. However, there have been instances where breeding dogs with hypertension have produced offspring with hypertension, so it seems likely that there is a genetic component.

So how prevalent is this form of hypertension? Studies have varied, but one study found that between 0.5 percent and 10 percent of dogs suffer from high blood pressure. Ages of dogs with hypertension ranged 2 to 14 years old.

Secondary hypertension, which accounts for 80 percent of all hypertension cases, may be due to a variety of factors, including renal disease, hormonal fluctuation, and hyperthyroidism.

Diabetes may also be a cause for hypertension, although it is uncommon in dogs. If you suspect that your dog is suffering from hypertension, bring it in so that your veterinarian may provide a proper diagnosis.

Diagnosis
Blood pressure is often measured in pets in the same manner as in humans. An inflatable cuff will be placed on the dog's paw or tail, and standard blood pressure measuring instruments will check the pressure. It is important to keep the dog still long enough to get an accurate reading.

The standards for dog blood pressure are:

• 150/95 – at this reading or below, there is minimal risk and treatment is not recommended
• 150/99 to 159/95 -- intervention is rotuinely not recommended at these readings
• 160/119 to 179/100 -- treatment should be sought to limit the risk of organ damage
• 180/120 -- immediate treatment should be sought to limit the degree of other more severe complications

Five to seven measurements are generally taken. The first measurement will be discarded, and the dog's excitement level during the procedure will be taken in account. If the results are in dispute, the procedure will need to be repeated.

Treatment
The underlying cause of the high blood pressure will be treated first. Otherwise, the dog will probably be on medication to control the blood pressure indefinitely. The medication of choice is either a calcium channel blocker or a beta-blocker. As to dog's diet, the veterinarian may recommend food that are lower in sodium.

Blood pressure should be checked regularly, and some lab tests may be ordered by your veterinarian to measure your dog’s reactions to the medication.

Cholangitis-Cholangiohepatitis Syndrome in Cats
Cholangitis is the medical term given for inflammation of the bile ducts and intrahepatic ducts -- the ducts that carry bile out of the liver. Bile, an essential component in the digestive process, begins in the liver and is then stored in the gallbladder until a meal is taken. The bitter fluid is then released into the cat's small intestine, where it emulsifies fats in the food to be used as energy by the rest of the body.

Cholangiohepatitis, meanwhile, describes inflammation of the bile ducts and liver. Together, these diseases are referred to as Cholangitis-Cholangiohepatitis Syndrome (CCHS), a disease that most commonly occurs in cats (though it does occur in dogs).

The most common cat breeds affected with CCHS are the Himalayan, Persian, and Siamese. 
 
Symptoms and Types
Certain conditions often occur prior to or simultaneous to CCHS: inflammation or clogging of  the liver ducts running outside the liver (EHBDO), inflammation of thepancreas, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), fatty liver disease, or long-term inflammation of kidney tissue. Symptoms may be sudden, intermittent, or long-term.

However, there are currently only three types of CCHS are recognized: suppurative, which has a discharge of fluid within the biliary canal and is often sudden onset, but generally has a good outcome; nonsuppurative, which is reoccurring and has a guarded to poor prognosis; and lymphocytic/lymphoplasmacytic, where lymphocytes and plasma cells invade and surround the liver's portal vein or portal triad (the portal vein, bile duct and artery of the liver), and which has a poor outcome due to its longer lasting chronic nature and tendency to progress to cirrhosis of the liver.

Suppurative CCHS

• Fever
• Swollen painful abdomen – due to fluid crossing over into the abdomen (ascites)
• Yellow skin and yellow whites of eyes
• Dehydration
• Shock

Nonsuppurative CCHS

• Enlarged liver (hepatomegaly)
• Lack of energy
• Lack of appetite (anorexia)
• Vomiting
• Ductopenia – insufficient number of bile ducts
  • Very hearty appetite
  • Unkempt coat
  • Variable baldness on sides of chest
  • Variable white to gray feces
  • Often due to failing liver/cirrhosis

Causes - Suppurative CCHS 

• Infectious
  • E. coli
  • Enterobacter
  • Enterococcus
  • β-hemolytic Streptococcus
  • Klebsiella
  • Actinomyces
  • Clostridia
  • Bacteroides
  • Toxoplasmosis (rarely)
• Non-infectious
  • Occurs after EHBDO (extra-hepatic bile duct obstruction)
  • Occurs after gall bladder blockage

Causes - Nonsuppurative CCHS

• May not be directly causal, but concurrent with:
  • EHBDO
  • Inflammation of gallbladder
  • Gallstones
  • Inflammation of the pancreas
  • Inflammatory bowel disease
  • Long-term swelling of kidney tissue

Diagnosis
Your veterinarian will perform a thorough physical exam on your cat, taking into account the background history of health, onset of symptoms, and possible incidents or illnesses that might have led to this condition. Some of the factors that place a cat at risk for developing CCHS are inflammatory bowel disease, pancreatitis, or obstruction of the bile ducts outside of the liver.

A chemical blood profile, complete blood count and urinalysis will be taken. These may reflect anemia, high liver enzymes, bilirubinuria (bilirubin in the urine), and/orlymphocytosis. They might also reflect cancer if it is causing the swelling of the liver and/or gallbladder. Often, sludged bile is found, which may be the cause of blocked bile ducts.

If your veterinarian suspects swelling of the pancreas, a TLI blood test (trypsin-like immunoreactivity – a pancreatic digestive enzyme) can be taken to test for pancreatic sufficiency. Vitamin B12 levels will be tested; low values indicate absorption problems in the small intestine, or pancreatic problems. Coagulation tests will also be performed to verify whether the blood is clotting normally. And thyroxine, a thyroid gland, may be tested to rule out a thyroid tumor. 

If your cat is a Himalayan or Persian your veterinarian may perform genotyping to check for hereditary kidney disease.

Chest X-rays, abdominal X-rays and an abdominal ultrasound can be used to check for cancer and to visualize the liver, pancreas and kidneys. For a closer visual exam, a laparotomy may also be performed. This method uses a diagnostic tool called a laparoscope, a small, flexible instrument that is passed into the body through a small incision. The laparoscope is equipped with a small camera and biopsy forceps, so that you doctor can visually inspect the walls and ducts of the liver and pancreas, and take a sample for biopsy. For further laboratory analysis, abdominal fluid and cell samples may sometimes be taken.

Treatment
If your cat has suppurative CCHS, antibiotics will be given. For nonsuppurative CCHS, immune-modulating drugs and antibiotics may be given. If your pet has lymphoma(cancer of the lymphocyte white blood cells), chemotherapy may be considered. Antioxidants may be prescribed along with other drugs to protect the liver. Vitamin B and E supplements are recommended, as well as vitamin K, which may be used if blood clotting times are not normal.

In some cases, surgery may be indicated, such as when an obstruction in the bile ducts is preventing bile from flowing normally. For milder cases, your cat may be treated on an outpatient basis, but if dehydration or malnutrition is found to be affecting your cat, or if your cat is unable to eat or drink, it will need to be placed on a feeding tube and intravenous line until its condition stabilizes.

Treatment will take about three to four months, with liver enzymes checked every two weeks. If the treatment does not appear to be working after four weeks, your veterinarian will need to repeat a bile culture and take a biopsy of liver tissue and fluid for analysis.

Living and Management
You will need to return for regular check-ups with your veterinarian, especially if signs suddenly occur again or if signs worsen.

For nonsuppurative CCHS, lifelong immunomodulatory, antioxidan,t and hepatoprotective therapy is often recommended. You should restrict your cat's activity during the recovery period, and your veterinarian will help you to create an easily digestible, high protein meal plan for the cat. Your veterinarian may also suggest that you supplement your cat's diet with water-soluble vitamins. 

If your cat has inflammatory bowel disease as well, it may need to be fed a more specialized diet. If your cat is found to have a massive lack of liver ducts (severe ductopenia), problems with small intestinal absorption, or a long-term or cyclical swelling of the pancreas, a special low-fat diet may be tailored to fit your cat's needs.

Hypothyroidism in Dogs
The thyroid gland is an essential gland in the body, producing a number of hormones, including T3 (liothyronine) and T4 (levothyroxine), both of which are required for normal metabolism in the body.

Hypothyroidism is a clinical condition resulting from a lowered production and release of T4 and T3 hormones by the thyroid gland. It is common in medium to large-sized dogs, with some being more predisposed than others. These breeds include Doberman Pinschers, Irish Setters, Golden Retrievers, Labrador Retrievers, Great Danes, Bernese Mountain Dog, Rottweiler, Dachshund ,Old English Sheepdogs, Miniature Schnauzers, Boxers, Poodles, and Cocker Spaniels. It is also more commonly diagnosed in middle-aged dogs between the ages of 4-10 years. Neutered male dogs and spayed females are found to be at higher risk than intact dogs.

Symptoms and Types

• Lethargy
• Generalized weakness
• Inactivity
• Mental dullness
• Unexplained weight gain
• Hair loss (alopecia)
• Excessive hair shedding
• Poor hair growth
• Dry or lusterless haircoat
• Excessive scaling
• Recurring skin infections
• Intolerance to cold
• Tilting of head to one side (uncommon)
• Seizures (uncommon)
• Infertility (uncommon)

Causes

• Unknown etiology (origin)
• Congenital disease
• Iodine deficiency
• Cancer
• After-effect of medical treatment, including surgery

Diagnosis
Your veterinarian will perform a thorough physical exam on your dog, taking into account the background history of symptoms and possible incidents that might have precipitated this condition. You will need to provide your veterinarian with a thorough history of your dog's health leading up to the onset of symptoms.

Finding the exact cause of hypothyroidism may require a thorough investigation. Routine laboratory testing will include a complete blood count, biochemistry profile, and urinalysis. Your doctor may be able to make an initial diagnosis based on the results of these tests, but endocrine testing is also an important panel for the diagnosis of hypothyroidism. The levels of T3 and T4 will be measured to determine if these are in the lower ranges. Radiographic studies may also be conducted to examine your dog internally for abnormalities that may be causing the dysfunction of the thyroid glands.

Treatment
Good treatment options are available for treating hypothyroidism in dogs. The treatment is usually life-long, with carefully administered medication given in conjunction with dietary restrictions at home. The deficient hormones are given insynthetic form, with the dosage adjusted occasionally based on your dog's individual physical condition and progress. Most clinical symptoms will resolve after a few months, but only your veterinarian can determine whether your dog's medicine dosage should be adjusted or changed.

Living and Management
Conscientious compliance with the prescribed drugs and diet is required for successful therapy. Your veterinarian will adjust the dosage of the synthetic hormones as necessary for your dog, and will also monitor the usefulness of any medications that have been prescribed. To avoid complicating the condition, do not change the type or dosage of the drug yourself, and never give anything new to your dog without first consulting with your veterinarian. This caution includes the use of herbal remedies. Diet modifications, including a reduction in fat, are recommended during the initial phase of therapy. Most dogs respond well to therapy, with activity levels and mental alertness increasing significantly after only a relatively short time.